Resilient Landscapes
Resilient Landscapes Program
Working with Nature to Foster Resilience
The Resilient Landscapes team develops innovative, long-range, nature-based strategies to improve the health of our shorelines, cities, and rural areas. RL work is organized in 7 focus areas:
Read more about the program
Historical Ecology synthesizes diverse historical records to learn how habitats were distributed and ecological functions were maintained within the native California landscape. Understanding how streams, wetlands, and woodlands were organized along physical gradients helps scientists and managers develop new strategies for more integrated and functional landscape management. 
Understanding the Changing Landscape
Given the dramatic changes to California landscapes during the past two centuries, we often have only rudimentary understanding of the systems we seek to protect and enhance. In fact, there is a growing recognition that restoration efforts have often misinterpreted earlier conditions, resulting in missed opportunities and, in some cases, failed projects. However, the development of accurate, reliable, and broadly-supported pictures of historical condition and change can help correctly identify the causes of current challenges, and reveal previously unrecognized management options. Historical reconstructions also educate and engage the public imagination, increasing public will for local and regional landscape stewardship.
History and Restoration in a Changing Climate
Researchers are increasingly recognizing that restoration and conservation strategies have often been misguided (and unsuccessful) because of a lack of understanding of historical conditions (e.g. Hamilton 1997, Kondolf et al. 2001, Foster and Motzkin 2003, Merritts and Walter 2008). This is particularly true in California, where our cultural memory is short and we have tended to impose concepts appropriate to more humid regions to our Mediterranean and semiarid landscapes (which will become only more so).
In fact, the natural climatic diversity of the region provides a framework for understanding the adaptation of local ecosystems across a surprisingly broad climatic gradient. Historical ecology reveals a landscape well-designed for extreme seasonal and interannual climatic variability and controlled by fundamental geologic controls that remain intact -- the "dry side of the ecological palette" that has been largely overlooked in conservation planning.
History shows how human efforts have tended to ignore these Mediterranean characteristics and reshaped the landscape according to different, imported conceptions. But it also reveals successful early adaptations (e.g., native land management, towns in the shade of oak groves, early dry farming and oyster farming, creeks as "sediment hoses") that can inspire creative, locally-calibrated management strategies. Climate change increases the need to understand and manage ecosystem functions adaptively along broad topographic, hydrological, and climatic gradients within the context of evolving cultural landscapes, rather than focusing on narrow, project-specific targets.
Applying Historical Ecology
SFEI's historical ecology studies have contributed to numerous restoration projects in the Bay Area and coastal California. Projects are carried out in collaboration with local partners and with a team of regional and local science advisers, with results made broadly available through website, publication, and presentation. SFEI's innovative approaches have been featured in New Scientist Magazine, Landscape Journal, The Living Landscape: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning, the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, and the Historical Ecology Handbook, as well as general audience science programs such as KQED’s QUEST and the Saving the Bay documentary.
More About Historical Ecology
- Egan, D and EA Howell. 2005. The Historical Ecology Handbook: A Restorationist's Guide to Reference Ecosystems. Island Press. Washington DC.
- Montgomery, DR, 2008. Dreams of Natural Streams. Science 319(5861):291-292.
- Sauer , CO. 1930. Historical Geography and the Western Frontier. In Land and Life: A Selection from the Writings of Carl Ortwin Sauer. UC Press 1969.
- Swetnam, TW, CD Allen, and JL Betancourt. 1999. Applied Historical Ecology: Using the Past to Manage for the Future. Ecological Applications 9(4):1189-1206.
The Historical Ecology Team
- Robin Grossinger, Scientist and Director of the Historical Ecology Program
- Ruth Askevold, Program Manager, Cartographic Specialist
- Sean Baumgarten, Environmental Analyst
- Julie Beagle, Associate Environmental Scientist
- Erin Beller, Associate Environmental Scientist
- Carolyn Doehring, Environmental Analyst
- Scott Dusterhoff, Geomorphologist
- Sam Safran, Environmental Analyst
- Micha Salomon, GIS Specialist
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EcoAtlas | California's EcoAtlas provides access to information for effective wetland management. EcoAtlas is a set of tools for generating, assembling, storing, visualizing, sharing,... |
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East Contra Costa County Historical Ecology Study | SFEI conducted a historical ecology assessment of natural resources in East Contra Costa County in partnership with Contra Costa County and the |
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The Collaborative Research Program at Quiroste Valley | This collaborative team of Indian scholars, archaeologists, ecologists, and land managers is embarking on an innovative research program with two primary goals. |
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Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Historical Ecology Study | The San Francisco Estuary Institute-Aquatic Science Center, in collaboration with the California Department of Fish and Game, has completed a historical ecology study of the... |
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Napa Valley Historical Ecology Study | Friends of the Napa River, the Napa County Resource Conservation District, and SFEI have carried out investigations into the historical Napa Valley landscape. |
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Napa Valley Historical Ecology Atlas | The Napa Valley Historical Ecology Atlas takes readers on a richly illustrated tour of the iconic Napa Valley landscape from 200 years ago to the present and future. Using... |
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Miller Creek Stewardship | Miller Creek was recently recognized by EPA biologist Rob Leidy as a high priority watershed for |
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Lower Salinas River Historical Ecology Reconnaissance | This report summarizes the results of an initial study of historical conditions (i.e., prior to significant Euro- American modification) on the lower Salinas River (... |
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Lower Laguna de Santa Rosa and Mark West Creek: Changes in Historical Channel Alignment | Over the past century and a half, the hydrology of the Laguna de Santa Rosa watershed has been altered by a variety land use changes, including urbanization, agricultural... |
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Exploring Landscape Change: the Wildcat Creek Watershed | This study provided information for the Wildcat Creek portion of the Oakland Museum's "Creek and Watershed Map of Richmond and Vicinity" Related project: |
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Dutch Slough Community Park and Public Access | This project provides a review of existing data and studies to verify conditions for the Dutch Slough Wetland Restoration Project. |
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Delta: McCormack-Williamson Tract | The McCormack-Williamson Tract (MWT) was purchased in 1999 by The Nature Conservancy with CALFED Ecosystem Restoration Program (ERP) funds. Though today it looks like many... |
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Delta Landscapes Project | The Delta Landscapes Project, which began in 2012 and will run through 2016, has developed a body of work to inform landscape-scale restoration of the Sacramento-San Joaquin... |
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Collaborative Cultural Landscape Research: Ethnoecological Fire Traditions on the Central Coast | Since 2006, together with colleagues at UC Berkeley, CA State Parks, UC Santa Cruz, BLM, the National Park Service, the Muwekma Ohlone and Amah Mutsun Tribes, and numerous... |
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BayBoards | Despite its solid and impressive appearance, the urban Bay Area landscape remains a thin, freshly-constructed veneer over the native landscape. |
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Ballona Creek Historical Ecology Project | The Ballona Creek project supports historical research conducted by the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project and CSU-Northridge on the historical ecology of the... |
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Alameda Creek Historical Ecology Study | The Alameda Creek Historical Ecology Study assesses watershed conditions prior to significant Euro-American modification, as a basis for understanding subsequent changes in... |
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Western Santa Clara Valley Historical Ecology Study | This study produced GIS layers and a report describing historical habitats in the Guadalupe, West Valley, and Lower Peninsula Watershed Management Areas of Santa Clara County... |
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Laguna de Santa Rosa Historical Ecology Initiative | The Laguna de Santa Rosa (Laguna) watershed spans 256 square miles and supports a unique complex of biologically diverse ecosystems. |
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Santa Clara Valley historical ecology GIS | This dataset represents a reconstruction of the historical landscape patterns, including channel and habitat distribution, of the Santa Clara Valley and adjacent baylands |
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Next Generation Urban Greening | SFEI is working with partners across the Bay Area to design tools to help cities achieve biodiversity, stormwater, and climate benefits through multifunctional green... |
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City of Riverside Urban and Historical Ecology Case Study | This study focuses on a segment of the Santa Ana River Parkway in and around the City of Riverside, where multiple habitat restoration projects are underway. |
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Delta Landscapes Scenario Planning Tool | This project is a tool for planning scenarios of landscape-scale restoration of the Delta. The tool is designed to inform ongoing and future restoration planning efforts in... |
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Hidden Nature SF | Hidden Nature SF brings a new perspective to our view of San Francisco, studying the city’s historical ecology in order to engage the public in re-imagining San Francisco’s... |
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Upper Penitencia Creek: Resilient Landscape Vision | The San Francisco Estuary Institute-Aquatic Science Center and the Santa Clara Valley Water District worked with technical advisors and a group of local stakeholders to... |
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Landscape Vision for Calabazas Creek, San Tomas Aquino Creek and Pond A8 | SFEI released a resilient landscape vision for the interface of Calabazas Creek, San Tomas Aquino Creek, and Pond A8 in South San Francisco Bay that benefits both flood... |
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Laguna de Santa Rosa Master Restoration Plan | The Laguna de Santa Rosa is an expansive freshwater wetland complex that hosts a rich diversity of plant and wildlife species, and is also home to a thriving agricultural... |
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Resilient By Design: Science Advisors | The challenges of accelerating sea level rise and aging shoreline infrastructure are creating a once-in-a-century opportunity to redesign the Bay shore. |
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Peninsula Watershed Historical Ecology Study | The Peninsula Watershed, located in San Mateo County on the San Francisco Peninsula, is the site of three of the Bay Area’s largest reservoirs—San Andreas, Upper and Lower... |
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Healthy Watersheds Resilient Baylands | Through the Healthy Watersheds Resilient Baylands project, SFEI and sixteen partner organizations are developing multi-benefit tools to enhance climate change resilience in... |
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Lower Walnut Creek Historical Ecology Study | During the mid-19th century, the lower Walnut Creek watershed was a landscape dominated by extensive wetlands, meandering creeks, and grassy plains. |
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Petaluma Valley Historical Hydrology and Ecology Study | This project reconstructs the historical hydrology and ecology of the Petaluma River watershed prior to major Euro-American modification. |
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Understanding Change in Primary Production at a Landscape Scale in the Delta | Constraints on primary production and the relative importance of different production sources to the food web remain major uncertainties in the Delta ecosystem. Newly... |
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EBDA Sea Level Rise Adaptation Planning Project | Historically, freshwater was an important component of the baylands ecosystem, creating salinity gradients that added physical and ecological diversity to the baylands... |
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Resilient Silicon Valley | Tools for the creation of a resilient Silicon Valley ecosystem. |
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John Muir/Mt. Wanda Historical Ecology Reconnaissance Study | The Mt. Wanda Historical Ecology Investigation assembled historical landscape data for the Mt. |
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Mapping Shoreline Change in San Pablo Bay | Using a systematic, empirical, and repeatable approach, we mapped the location of the shorelines in San Pablo Bay at three points in time: 1855, 1993, and 2010. We then... |
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Historical Ecology and Landscape Change in the Central Laguna de Santa Rosa | This study synthesizes a diverse array of data to examine the ecological patterns, ecosystem functions, and hydrology that characterized a central portion of the Laguna de... |
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Mission Bay Historical Ecology Reconnaissance Study | The Mission Bay Historical Ecology Reconnaissance Study, completed in February of 2016, collected and organized data on the historical conditions of Mission Bay in San Diego... |
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Russian River Watershed Projects at the San Francisco Estuary Institute | Our projects in the Russian River Watershed help us to understand our past, understand our present, and envision our future. Learn more about what SFEI is doing in... |
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Flood Control 2.0 | Flood Control 2.0 is an ambitious regional effort aimed at helping restore stream and wetland habitats, water quality, and shoreline resilience around San Francisco Bay. The... |
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Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Project | SFEI's Letitia Grenier served as lead scientist of the Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Project, which yielded a report called The Baylands and Climate Change: What We... |
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Tijuana River Valley Historical Ecology Investigation | The Tijuana River Valley Historical Ecology Investigation synthesized hundreds of historical maps, photographs, and texts to reconstruct the the ecological, hydrological, and... |
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North San Diego County Lagoons Historical Ecology Study | The Northern San Diego County Lagoons Historical Ecology Investigation draws on hundreds of historical documents to analyze and reconstruct historical landscape conditions... |
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Historical Wetlands of the Southern California Coast Phase 2: Historical Extent and Change Over Time | This project builds on earlier efforts to provide comprehensive analysis of the 40 T-sheets that cover the southern California Bight (S |
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U.S. Coast Survey Maps of California (South Coast) | Until the advent of this new map viewer, a valuable resource was largely unavailable to coastal planners. Now, US Coastal Survey maps are free for broad use. |
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Historical Tidal-Terrestrial Transition Zone in South SF Bay | The tidal-terrestrial transition zone (T-zone) occupies the gradient between the intertidal zone and terrestrial (i.e., levee faces, valleys, hillsides, alluvial fans, and... |
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U.S. Coast Survey Maps of SF Bay | Under the direction of some of the leading American scientists of the 19th century, the United States Coast Survey (USCS) created exceptionally accurate and detailed maps of... |
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Historical Ecology of Lower San Francisquito Creek | The primary goal of this project was to produce GIS layers and georeferenced imagery for use by the planning and engineering team of the |
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Ventura County Historical Ecology Study | This project investigated the historical ecological patterns and hydrological dynamics of most of lowland Ventura County. |
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Surveying the Bay through Time with George E. Russell: Aero Foto | An art/science exhibit using photographic prints and graphic stories to present previously-unseen work by one of the first aerial photographers of the region. |
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Historical Wetlands of the Southern California Coast: An Atlas of US Coast Survey T-Sheets 1851-1889 | This project is the first regional assessment of the relative distribution and abundance of different wetland habitat types along the historical Southern California coastline... |
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Baylands and Creeks of South San Francisco Bay | A map of historical habitats and channels in the South Bay. |
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T-Sheet User Guide | This guide discusses the historical maps of San Francisco Bay produced by the United States Coast Survey (USCS) and their application to present-day environmental efforts in... |
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Upper Penitencia Creek: Historical Ecology Assessment | Upper Penitencia Creek, on the eastern side of Santa Clara Valley, has locally significant potential for stream restoration and anadromous fish recovery. |
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Historical Ecology of Miller Creek | This project provides an introduction to the historical land use and landscape changes in the Miller Creek watershed in Marin County. |
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San Gabriel River Historical Ecology Project | The goal of this project was to use a variety of historical resources to answer the following questions |
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Coyote Creek Watershed Historical Ecology Study | This report synthesizes historical evidence into a picture of how Coyote Creek looked and functioned before intensive modification. Prepared for the Santa Clara Valley Water... |
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Sonoma Creek Historical Ecology Intro | Historical ecological and geomorphic change in the Sonoma Creek watershed Partners Sonoma Ecology Center |
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South Santa Clara Valley Historical Ecology Study | This study assesses historical conditions and landscape change in the southern part of the Santa Clara Valley. It is designed to inform strategies for natural flood... |
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Rodeo Lagoon (Marin County) | This report is submitted in the context of transportation planning and improvement of public access to |
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Seeing What the Land Remembers: Geography, Ecology, and the History of Place | An interdisciplinary discussion panel at UC Berkeley's Townsend Center for the Humanities. |
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Ecological Connections between Baylands and Uplands | Marin County is updating its Countywide Plan, which has the objective of meeting the needs of the present without compromising the future. |
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Wildcat Creek Landscape History | People have lived along Wildcat Creek since 3,000 to 4,000 BP. By that time, Sea level rise had slowed, and the Bay's size had stabilized, allowing broad mudflats and tidal... |
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Realizing the Full Potential of California Ecosystems
SFEI has received initial funding from the San Francisco-based Seed Fund to establish the Center for Resilient Landscapes. The Center will promote creative and integrative responses to the challenge of climate change by drawing on SFEI’s deep understanding of the diversity, complexity, and functions of California’s native landscapes.
What is a “resilient landscape”?
An ecologically resilient landscape is able to absorb and accommodate stressors and variability (such as increased temperatures or more frequent floods) while still maintaining its fundamental structure and function – that is, it is able to both persist and adapt in the face of change. In the recent past, California ecosystems were often resilient to these and other stressors. In contrast, many of today’s ecosystems have been highly homogenized and fragmented, making them less resilient and more sensitive to environmental and other perturbations.
What is the goal of the Center for Resilient Landscapes?
Adaptation to climate change in the 21st century requires redesigning our landscapes as resilient, interconnected systems that have the ability to adapt over time. The diversity and complexity of the native California landscape offers many of the solutions to this challenge, providing a broad palette of strategies for enhancing the ecological function and resilience of our landscapes. Revealed by innovative techniques such as historical ecology, this understanding of how our landscapes functioned in the recent past helps reveal their underlying, often surprising, potential. The Center will use historical ecology, along with other tools, to identify the inherent potential in our existing landscapes and create visions and strategies for achieving that potential.
Who is the Center for Resilient Landscapes?
The Center will be led by SFEI senior scientist Robin Grossinger, and will draw on SFEI staff from the Resilient Landscapes Program and other programs across the Institute. In addition, the Center will bring together an interdisciplinary group of scientists, engineers, and designers from California and beyond to advise and guide activities.
What will the Center for Resilient Landscapes do?
We anticipate the Center will lead a variety of research, advisory, and educational activities, such as: guiding restoration design, hosting forums on relevant issues, developing visualization tools to communicate key findings, and publishing research that synthesizes findings across California watersheds.
Where can I learn more?
For more information, please contact Robin Grossinger.
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Shallow Groundwater Response to Sea Level Rise | As sea levels rise and extreme storms become more frequent, communities are developing climate adaptation plans to protect housing, jobs, ecosystems, and infrastructure from... |
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Special Study on Bulk Density | Sediment bulk density is the total mass of mineral and organic sediment within a defined volume. |
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New Life for Eroding Shorelines | The New Life for Eroding Shorelines project explores living shoreline approaches for sea level rise adaptation that can reduce erosion at the marsh edge and improve... |
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Preparing for the Storm | Catalyzed by the extensive damages caused by the Winter 2016-2017 storms and the opportunity to align flood response with major habitat improvement, Preparing for the Storm... |
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Landscape Vision for Calabazas Creek, San Tomas Aquino Creek and Pond A8 | SFEI released a resilient landscape vision for the interface of Calabazas Creek, San Tomas Aquino Creek, and Pond A8 in South San Francisco Bay that benefits both flood... |
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San Francisco Bay Shoreline Adaptation Atlas: Working with Nature to Plan for Sea Level Rise | In partnership with SPUR, The Operational Landscape Units project, funded by the |
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Sonoma Creek Baylands Strategy | The Sonoma Creek Baylands Strategy is a comprehensive high-level plan for landscape-scale restoration, flood protection, and public access in the tidal Lower Sonoma Creek... |
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Resilience Atlas | The Resilience Atlas is a compilation of cutting-edge science, creative visions and relevant spatial data to support planners, designers, polic |
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Resilient By Design: Science Advisors | The challenges of accelerating sea level rise and aging shoreline infrastructure are creating a once-in-a-century opportunity to redesign the Bay shore. |
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Healthy Watersheds Resilient Baylands | Through the Healthy Watersheds Resilient Baylands project, SFEI and sixteen partner organizations are developing multi-benefit tools to enhance climate change resilience in... |
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Estuary 2100 Technical Support - Round 1 | Estuary 2100 is an integrated set of ecosystem-based projects aimed at protecting and enhancing San Francisco Estuary, while anticipating the effects of our changing climate. |
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Lower Walnut Creek Historical Ecology Study | During the mid-19th century, the lower Walnut Creek watershed was a landscape dominated by extensive wetlands, meandering creeks, and grassy plains. |
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Petaluma Valley Historical Hydrology and Ecology Study | This project reconstructs the historical hydrology and ecology of the Petaluma River watershed prior to major Euro-American modification. |
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EBDA Sea Level Rise Adaptation Planning Project | Historically, freshwater was an important component of the baylands ecosystem, creating salinity gradients that added physical and ecological diversity to the baylands... |
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Mapping Shoreline Change in San Pablo Bay | Using a systematic, empirical, and repeatable approach, we mapped the location of the shorelines in San Pablo Bay at three points in time: 1855, 1993, and 2010. We then... |
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Mission Bay Historical Ecology Reconnaissance Study | The Mission Bay Historical Ecology Reconnaissance Study, completed in February of 2016, collected and organized data on the historical conditions of Mission Bay in San Diego... |
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San Francisco Bay Shore Inventory | SFEI is developing an online interactive map to support regional planning and assessment given accelerated sea level rise around the Bay. |
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Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Project | SFEI's Letitia Grenier served as lead scientist of the Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Project, which yielded a report called The Baylands and Climate Change: What We... |
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North San Diego County Lagoons Historical Ecology Study | The Northern San Diego County Lagoons Historical Ecology Investigation draws on hundreds of historical documents to analyze and reconstruct historical landscape conditions... |
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North Bay Mercury Biosentinel Monitoring | In 2011-2014 SFEI and UC Davis developed and implemented a multi-species biosentinel monitoring approach as an effective and efficient way of monitoring methylmercury... |
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Historical Wetlands of the Southern California Coast Phase 2: Historical Extent and Change Over Time | This project builds on earlier efforts to provide comprehensive analysis of the 40 T-sheets that cover the southern California Bight (S |
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U.S. Coast Survey Maps of California (South Coast) | Until the advent of this new map viewer, a valuable resource was largely unavailable to coastal planners. Now, US Coastal Survey maps are free for broad use. |
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Head of Tide | SFEI completed a pilot study focused on creating a framework for a rapid protocol that can be used to delineate the current and future head of tide zone for San Francisco Bay... |
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State of the Bay | The State of the Bay report provides independent, science-based reporting on the state of the health of the San Francisco Estuary ecosystem. |
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Historical Tidal-Terrestrial Transition Zone in South SF Bay | The tidal-terrestrial transition zone (T-zone) occupies the gradient between the intertidal zone and terrestrial (i.e., levee faces, valleys, hillsides, alluvial fans, and... |
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U.S. Coast Survey Maps of SF Bay | Under the direction of some of the leading American scientists of the 19th century, the United States Coast Survey (USCS) created exceptionally accurate and detailed maps of... |
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Historical Ecology of Lower San Francisquito Creek | The primary goal of this project was to produce GIS layers and georeferenced imagery for use by the planning and engineering team of the |
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Historical Wetlands of the Southern California Coast: An Atlas of US Coast Survey T-Sheets 1851-1889 | This project is the first regional assessment of the relative distribution and abundance of different wetland habitat types along the historical Southern California coastline... |
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Baylands and Creeks of South San Francisco Bay | A map of historical habitats and channels in the South Bay. |
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South Bay Salt Pond Restoration Science Team | The SBSPRP Science Team provides review to project consultants and assists the Project Management Team with the development of a long-range science program for the project. |
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South Baylands Mercury Project (SBMP) | We have developed biosentinel species indicators for wetlands to help the SBMP management team make decisions relative to mercury risk about where and how to restore salt... |
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Assessment of Removal of Creosote-Treated Pilings and Structures from San Francisco Bay | The remnants of old creosote-treated piers and dilapidated maritime facilities are common sights along intertidal and subtidal shorelines. Removal of these structures has ... |
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T-Sheet User Guide | This guide discusses the historical maps of San Francisco Bay produced by the United States Coast Survey (USCS) and their application to present-day environmental efforts in... |
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LTMS Science Framework Update | The San Francisco Bay Long-Term Management Strategy (LTMS) is a collaborative partnership with the purpose to conduct dredging activities in an economically prudent and... |
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Historical Ecology of Miller Creek | This project provides an introduction to the historical land use and landscape changes in the Miller Creek watershed in Marin County. |
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Rodeo Lagoon (Marin County) | This report is submitted in the context of transportation planning and improvement of public access to |
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Ecological Connections between Baylands and Uplands | Marin County is updating its Countywide Plan, which has the objective of meeting the needs of the present without compromising the future. |
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South Bay Salt Pond Landscape Synthesis Report | This synthesis focuses on the form and function of South Bay landscapes to address the following two issues maintaining and improving functioning of the South Bay... |
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The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta supplies freshwater to a large portion of California’s cities and agriculture, supports an agricultural economy and culture, and is home to native wildlife found nowhere else in the world. This complex region is hampered by many environmental challenges, including an over-allocated water supply, invasive species, water quality problems, novel ecosystems that no longer support desired functions, aging infrastructure, and a complex management structure. Beyond these challenges, sea level rise, other impacts from climate change, and earthquakes pose significant risks to Delta ecosystems, agriculture and water supply. The Delta Science and Management Focus Area investigates the ecology, hydrology and geomorphology of the Delta to inform decision making in this complex environment.
The three-part Delta Landscapes Project investigated the historical ecosystems of the Delta, examined how these ecosystems have been modified in the current landscape, and provided a holistic, aspirational approach to restoration. Building on this foundation, SFEI has contributed to multiple regional planning efforts and investigations of how the Delta supports specific functions, including primary production, salmon rearing habitat, and carbon storage. Our work from many of these projects is incorporated in the Delta Landscapes Scenario Planning Tool, a set of resources to assist users with developing, analyzing, and evaluating different land use scenarios to inform ongoing and future restoration planning efforts.
For more information, please contact [email protected].
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Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Historical Ecology Study | The San Francisco Estuary Institute-Aquatic Science Center, in collaboration with the California Department of Fish and Game, has completed a historical ecology study of the... |
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Dutch Slough Community Park and Public Access | This project provides a review of existing data and studies to verify conditions for the Dutch Slough Wetland Restoration Project. |
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Delta: McCormack-Williamson Tract | The McCormack-Williamson Tract (MWT) was purchased in 1999 by The Nature Conservancy with CALFED Ecosystem Restoration Program (ERP) funds. Though today it looks like many... |
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Delta Landscapes Project | The Delta Landscapes Project, which began in 2012 and will run through 2016, has developed a body of work to inform landscape-scale restoration of the Sacramento-San Joaquin... |
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Delta Salmon Rearing | The objective of this project is to summarize existing research and knowledge around suitable rearing habitat for Chinook salmon in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta; identify... |
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Salmon Habitat Quantification Development | The Chinook salmon habitat quantification tool is a science-based approach for use by restoration planners to evaluate existing or potential habitat across spatially- and... |
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Understanding Change in Primary Production at a Landscape Scale in the Delta | Constraints on primary production and the relative importance of different production sources to the food web remain major uncertainties in the Delta ecosystem. Newly... |
Year of Publication: 2019
Year of Publication: 2017
Year of Publication: 2016
Year of Publication: 2014
Year of Publication: 2013
Year of Publication: 2012
The Wetland Science Focus Area provides scientific and technological support for coordinated, collaborative, cost-effective wetland planning, management, assessment, and reporting across government policies and programs. Working with other Focus Areas at SFEI, and with many outside partners, we help all interests develop place-based goals for wetland protection by developing and implementing tools, such as Historical Ecology, the California Aquatic Resource Inventory (CARI), and the California Rapid Assessment Method for wetlands (CRAM) to understand how the abundance, diversity, and condition of wetlands have changed due to nature and people, and to explore alternative ways to protect and restore wetlands for the future.
What are Wetlands?
Wetlands are landscape features with aquatic and terrestrial characteristics. They form the shores of aquatic features, like lakes and rivers and tidal bays, but they also exist by themselves, surrounded entirely by uplands. They have their own unique flora and fauna. In fact, wetland can be identified by indicative plants adapted to saturated soils. There are many kinds of wetlands in the western US with colorful common names: ponds, bogs, fens, swamps, marshes, vernal pools, hog wallows, wet meadows, playas, bottomlands, seeps, springs, swales, and sloughs – just to name a few. They have technical names too: marine, estuarine, palustrine, riverine, depressional, slope, flat.
Why are Wetlands Important?
There are many names for wetlands because they take many forms and do many things for people. Some of the common services of wetlands are: water quality improvement, flood control, shoreline protection, groundwater supply, fish and wildlife support, recreation, food production, beautification, and climate moderation. Numerous species of birds and mammals rely on wetlands for food, water, and shelter, especially while migrating and breeding. More than half of the threatened and endangered species rely directly or indirectly on wetlands for their survival. Wetlands can receive, store, and release water, and therefore strongly influence the hydrological cycler and water availability. They improve water quality by intercepting surface runoff and removing or retaining inorganic nutrients, processing organic wastes, and reducing suspended sediments. Wetlands store carbon as organic soil instead of releasing it to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas affecting global climate change.
Protecting Wetlands
Because of their many valuable services to people, wetlands are protected by federal, state, and local laws and policies intended to reverse historical trends in wetland loss. There are many agencies involved in protecting wetlands by regulating how they are used, providing tax incentives to protect privately owned wetlands, and to acquire wetlands as parks, wildlife refuges, and open space. The federal and state agencies most directly responsible for wetlands have recently begun developing watershed approaches to comprehensive wetland protection.
SFEI's Wetland Science Focus Area is involved in over a dozen projects that support the California Wetland and Riparian Area Protection Policy, providing science support and technical tools for wetland monitoring, tracking, and reporting on the distribution, abundance and condition of wetlands accross the state. More Information.
Wetland Science Focus Area Team
- Josh Collins, Ph.D, Focus Area Director
- Sarah Lowe, Focus Area Manager
- Sarah Pearce, CRAM Practitioner and Lead Trainer
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Wetlands Regional Monitoring Project | This Prop 50 - funded project was a three-year effort to monitor and track changes in Bay Area wetland condition. This wetland monitoring toolkit meets basic information... |
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EcoAtlas | California's EcoAtlas provides access to information for effective wetland management. EcoAtlas is a set of tools for generating, assembling, storing, visualizing, sharing,... |
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Stream Goals Demonstration Project | The SFEI Waterlands Group (Wetland Science, Watershed Science, and Historical Ecology) is developing a workshop for watershed planners to investigate the technical and policy... |
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Ballona Creek Historical Ecology Project | The Ballona Creek project supports historical research conducted by the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project and CSU-Northridge on the historical ecology of the... |
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Alameda Creek Historical Ecology Study | The Alameda Creek Historical Ecology Study assesses watershed conditions prior to significant Euro-American modification, as a basis for understanding subsequent changes in... |
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California Wetlands Portal | The California Wetlands Portal, one of the State of California’s My Water Quality portals, |
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Southern California Wetland Mapping Project | Southern California Coastal Research Watershed Project and CSU Northridge-Center for Geographical |
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Coastal Wetlands, Beaches and Watersheds Inventory | The Ocean Protection Council (OPC) and SFEI will develop an inventory of the wetlands and other surface waters of all California’s coastal HUC-8 watersh |
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EcoAtlas | EcoAtlas is a set of tools for generating, assembling, storing, visualizing, sharing, and reporting environmental data and information. |
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Coyote Creek Native Ecosystem Enhancement Tool | The Coyote Creek Native Ecosystem Enhancement Tool (CCNEET, neet. ecoatlas.org) is an online decision-support tool to identify opportunities to improve ecological conditions... |
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Developing a Sustainable Business Model for the EcoAtlas Toolset | This project is funded by a USEPA wetland development grant (2015-2017) to develop a recommended funding and business model for the EcoAtlas toolset. EcoAtlas is a ... |
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California Rapid Assessment Method (CRAM): Bar-Built Estuarine Wetlands | The CRAM Bar-Built Estuarine module is used for assessing reaches of coastal rivers and streams that are ecologically influenced by seasonal closures of their tidal inlets... |
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RipZET: A GIS-based Tool for Estimating Riparian Zones | The Riparian Zone Estimator Tool (RipZET) is a decision support tool developed by the San Francisco Estuary Institute and Aquatic Science Center for the California Riparian... |
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Russian River Watershed Projects at the San Francisco Estuary Institute | Our projects in the Russian River Watershed help us to understand our past, understand our present, and envision our future. Learn more about what SFEI is doing in... |
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Evaluation of CRAM performance for assessing wetland stress, small wetlands, and wetland habitat development | Caltrans funded this wetlands research to fill important gaps in knowledge about the ability of the California Rapid Assessment Method (CRAM) to assess small wetlands,... |
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Visualizing and Sharing Intensive Data Assessments | With California's drought rapidly changing the outlook for natural resources, decision-makers must be equipped with information and tools that facilitate clear and rapid... |
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Lahontan EcoAtlas Development | This project will create an EcoAtlas user community for the Lahontan region of the Sierra Nevada to develop capacities within the region to apply EcoAtlas through existing... |
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Habitat Restoration Project Tracking | This project expands the current capabilities of the wetland project tracking system for the monitoring and assessment of California’s aquatic resources to meet the project... |
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Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Project | SFEI's Letitia Grenier served as lead scientist of the Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Project, which yielded a report called The Baylands and Climate Change: What We... |
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California Rapid Assessment Method (CRAM): Slope Wetlands | CRAM is a cost-effective and scientifically defensible rapid assessment method for monitoring and assessing the ecologcial conditions of wetlands throughout California. |
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North Bay Mercury Biosentinel Monitoring | In 2011-2014 SFEI and UC Davis developed and implemented a multi-species biosentinel monitoring approach as an effective and efficient way of monitoring methylmercury... |
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Eelgrass Data Management and Project Tracking | Eelgrass (Zostera marina and Z. pacifica) is recognized as an important ecological resource in nearshore open coast areas, shallow bays, and estuaries... |
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Santa Rosa Plain Wetlands Profile: A Demonstration of WRAMP | The Santa Rosa Plain WRAMP project demonstrated the use of the State’s standardized monitoring and assessment tools in a North Coast watershed setting and described how the... |
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North Coast WRAMP Demonstration: Mapping Standards | The North Coast WRAMP Demonstation Project focused on mapping and assessing the condition of aquatic resources within the Santa Rosa Plain, CA using GIS based mapping... |
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Transitional Ecotone Vegetation Data Management System | Upload and access data from vegetation surveys of intertidal-upland ecotones |
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National Hydrography Dataset (NHD) Data Stewardship | As the San Francisco Bay Area Regional Steward for the USGS National Hydrography Dataset, SFEI has been working with National and State USGS NHD representatives to coordinate... |
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Six County Aquatic Resource Inventory | The US Army Corps of Engineers, Sacramento Division updated wetland and stream maps for the 6 county area (Sacramento, Placer, Yolo, El Dorado, Yuba, and Sutter Counties) to... |
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Tahoe WRAMP Demonstration: Mapping Standards | The Tahoe WRAMP Demonstration Project implemented detailed and standardized mapping protocols within the Tahoe Basin in two watersheds, based on BAARI mapping standards. New... |
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Tahoe WRAMP Demonstration: Watershed Assessment | The Tahoe WRAMP Watershed Demontration Project transfered statewide wetland monitoring and asseement tools to Sierra Nevada environmental agencies and organizations through a... |
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Santa Clara Valley Water District Priority D5 Project's Watershed Condition Assessments (2010 to 2018) | SFEI and the Santa Clara Valley Water District's (Valley Water) Priority D-5 Project have been conducting baseline ecological condition assessments in Santa Clara County, CA... |
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Statewide Wetland Tracking, Science, and Policy Development Support | SFEI’s Wetland Science Focus Area’s Director, Josh Collins, is a leader in the coordination of statewide science advisory teams and acquiring funding to develop monitoring... |
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Bay Area Aquatic Resource Inventory (BAARI) | The Bay Area Aquatic Resources Inventory (BAARI) is a GIS base map of the Bay Area's wetlands, open water, streams, ditches, tidal marshes and flats, and riparian areas.... |
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California Aquatic Resource Inventory (CARI) | The California Aquatic Resources Inventory (CARI) is a Geographic Information System (GIS) based map of wetlands, streams, and riparian areas within California that is hosted... |
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Online 401 Application Tool | This tool provides a permit negotiation tool for applicants and Regional Water Board staff to work together on preparing a permit for a 401 Water Quality Certification or... |
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Contaminant Data Download and Display (CD3) | Contaminant Data Display and Download Tool or CD3 is an innovative visualization tool for accessing water quality data for the San Francisco Bay-Delta and northern montane |
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California Rapid Assessment Method (CRAM) | CRAM is a standardized, scientifically defensible rapid assessment method for monitoring the ecological conditions of wetlands throughout California. Because it is... |
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Montezuma Technical Review Team | The Montezuma wetland restoration project is returning ~2,000 acres of diked baylands to tidal, seasonal, and managed wetlands in an eastern portion of Suisun Bay near the... |
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The Integrative Geomorphology Focus Area investigates geomorphic processes in watersheds and tidal environments to help develop resilient landscape management approaches that consider climate change and other key ecosystem drivers. By working closely with the Hydrology, Landscape Ecology, Watershed Loadings, and Historical Ecology Focus Areas, the Integrative Geomorphology Focus Area provides an understanding of historical and contemporary fluvial and tidal physical processes and landscape evolution at a range of spatial and temporal scales. This understanding is essential for helping mangers determine the magnitude of landscape sensitivity to natural and anthropogenic influences, identify short-term and long-term management priorities, and develop sustainable solutions for key habitat creation and maintenance under projected future conditions.
Topics currently under investigation by the Integrative Geomorphology Focus Area include the following:
- Regional assessment of watershed geomorphic and ecological processes in San Francisco Bay tributaries for past, present, and projected future conditions
- Investigating the role of watershed sediment delivery on marsh survival under a rising sea level around San Francisco Bay
- Historical evolution of the San Francisco Bay shoreline and assessment of future shoreline resilience
- Regional assessment of climate change impacts on the fluvial-tidal transition location for San Francisco Bay tributaries
- Developing a new approach to flood control channel design at the Bay interface that supports critical marsh habitat restoration and creation
Manager: Scott Dusterhoff
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East Contra Costa County Historical Ecology Study | SFEI conducted a historical ecology assessment of natural resources in East Contra Costa County in partnership with Contra Costa County and the |
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Stream Goals Demonstration Project | The SFEI Waterlands Group (Wetland Science, Watershed Science, and Historical Ecology) is developing a workshop for watershed planners to investigate the technical and policy... |
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Napa Valley Historical Ecology Study | Friends of the Napa River, the Napa County Resource Conservation District, and SFEI have carried out investigations into the historical Napa Valley landscape. |
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Napa Valley Historical Ecology Atlas | The Napa Valley Historical Ecology Atlas takes readers on a richly illustrated tour of the iconic Napa Valley landscape from 200 years ago to the present and future. Using... |
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Miller Creek Stewardship | Miller Creek was recently recognized by EPA biologist Rob Leidy as a high priority watershed for |
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Lower Salinas River Historical Ecology Reconnaissance | This report summarizes the results of an initial study of historical conditions (i.e., prior to significant Euro- American modification) on the lower Salinas River (... |
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Lower Laguna de Santa Rosa and Mark West Creek: Changes in Historical Channel Alignment | Over the past century and a half, the hydrology of the Laguna de Santa Rosa watershed has been altered by a variety land use changes, including urbanization, agricultural... |
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Exploring Landscape Change: the Wildcat Creek Watershed | This study provided information for the Wildcat Creek portion of the Oakland Museum's "Creek and Watershed Map of Richmond and Vicinity" Related project: |
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City of Riverside Urban and Historical Ecology Case Study | This study focuses on a segment of the Santa Ana River Parkway in and around the City of Riverside, where multiple habitat restoration projects are underway. |
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Coyote Creek Native Ecosystem Enhancement Tool | The Coyote Creek Native Ecosystem Enhancement Tool (CCNEET, neet. ecoatlas.org) is an online decision-support tool to identify opportunities to improve ecological conditions... |
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Salmon Habitat Quantification Development | The Chinook salmon habitat quantification tool is a science-based approach for use by restoration planners to evaluate existing or potential habitat across spatially- and... |
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Upper Penitencia Creek: Resilient Landscape Vision | The San Francisco Estuary Institute-Aquatic Science Center and the Santa Clara Valley Water District worked with technical advisors and a group of local stakeholders to... |
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Preparing for the Storm | Catalyzed by the extensive damages caused by the Winter 2016-2017 storms and the opportunity to align flood response with major habitat improvement, Preparing for the Storm... |
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Landscape Vision for Calabazas Creek, San Tomas Aquino Creek and Pond A8 | SFEI released a resilient landscape vision for the interface of Calabazas Creek, San Tomas Aquino Creek, and Pond A8 in South San Francisco Bay that benefits both flood... |
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Laguna de Santa Rosa Master Restoration Plan | The Laguna de Santa Rosa is an expansive freshwater wetland complex that hosts a rich diversity of plant and wildlife species, and is also home to a thriving agricultural... |
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Healthy Watersheds Resilient Baylands | Through the Healthy Watersheds Resilient Baylands project, SFEI and sixteen partner organizations are developing multi-benefit tools to enhance climate change resilience in... |
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Lower Walnut Creek Historical Ecology Study | During the mid-19th century, the lower Walnut Creek watershed was a landscape dominated by extensive wetlands, meandering creeks, and grassy plains. |
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Petaluma Valley Historical Hydrology and Ecology Study | This project reconstructs the historical hydrology and ecology of the Petaluma River watershed prior to major Euro-American modification. |
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Sycamore Alluvial Woodland Habitat Mapping and Regeneration Studies | This study investigates the relative distribution, health, and regeneration patterns of two major stands of sycamore alluvial woodland (SAW) in Santa Clara County,... |
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RipZET: A GIS-based Tool for Estimating Riparian Zones | The Riparian Zone Estimator Tool (RipZET) is a decision support tool developed by the San Francisco Estuary Institute and Aquatic Science Center for the California Riparian... |
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Historical Ecology and Landscape Change in the Central Laguna de Santa Rosa | This study synthesizes a diverse array of data to examine the ecological patterns, ecosystem functions, and hydrology that characterized a central portion of the Laguna de... |
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Russian River Watershed Projects at the San Francisco Estuary Institute | Our projects in the Russian River Watershed help us to understand our past, understand our present, and envision our future. Learn more about what SFEI is doing in... |
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Flood Control 2.0 | Flood Control 2.0 is an ambitious regional effort aimed at helping restore stream and wetland habitats, water quality, and shoreline resilience around San Francisco Bay. The... |
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Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Project | SFEI's Letitia Grenier served as lead scientist of the Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Project, which yielded a report called The Baylands and Climate Change: What We... |
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Tijuana River Valley Historical Ecology Investigation | The Tijuana River Valley Historical Ecology Investigation synthesized hundreds of historical maps, photographs, and texts to reconstruct the the ecological, hydrological, and... |
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Head of Tide | SFEI completed a pilot study focused on creating a framework for a rapid protocol that can be used to delineate the current and future head of tide zone for San Francisco Bay... |
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Santa Rosa Plain Wetlands Profile: A Demonstration of WRAMP | The Santa Rosa Plain WRAMP project demonstrated the use of the State’s standardized monitoring and assessment tools in a North Coast watershed setting and described how the... |
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Historical Tidal-Terrestrial Transition Zone in South SF Bay | The tidal-terrestrial transition zone (T-zone) occupies the gradient between the intertidal zone and terrestrial (i.e., levee faces, valleys, hillsides, alluvial fans, and... |
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Historical Ecology of Lower San Francisquito Creek | The primary goal of this project was to produce GIS layers and georeferenced imagery for use by the planning and engineering team of the |
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Ventura County Historical Ecology Study | This project investigated the historical ecological patterns and hydrological dynamics of most of lowland Ventura County. |
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Upper Penitencia Creek: Historical Ecology Assessment | Upper Penitencia Creek, on the eastern side of Santa Clara Valley, has locally significant potential for stream restoration and anadromous fish recovery. |
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Historical Ecology of Miller Creek | This project provides an introduction to the historical land use and landscape changes in the Miller Creek watershed in Marin County. |
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San Gabriel River Historical Ecology Project | The goal of this project was to use a variety of historical resources to answer the following questions |
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Coyote Creek Watershed Historical Ecology Study | This report synthesizes historical evidence into a picture of how Coyote Creek looked and functioned before intensive modification. Prepared for the Santa Clara Valley Water... |
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South Santa Clara Valley Historical Ecology Study | This study assesses historical conditions and landscape change in the southern part of the Santa Clara Valley. It is designed to inform strategies for natural flood... |
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Wildcat Creek Landscape History | People have lived along Wildcat Creek since 3,000 to 4,000 BP. By that time, Sea level rise had slowed, and the Bay's size had stabilized, allowing broad mudflats and tidal... |
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Landscape Ecology focuses on landscape planning for wildlife, with an emphasis on producing practical scientific information to aid resource managers in making decisions that will optimize benefits for wildlife. Our goal is to provide input that will improve how restoration projects and planning efforts take into account and plan for the needs of wild animals and plants across the regional landscape and over time. Recent projects include landscape analyses of the ecological connectivity of habitats in eastern Marin County and development of wetland mercury biosentinel species to aid tidal marsh restoration planning. more >
Manager: Letitia Grenier, Ph.D.
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East Contra Costa County Historical Ecology Study | SFEI conducted a historical ecology assessment of natural resources in East Contra Costa County in partnership with Contra Costa County and the |
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Next Generation Urban Greening | SFEI is working with partners across the Bay Area to design tools to help cities achieve biodiversity, stormwater, and climate benefits through multifunctional green... |
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Delta Landscapes Scenario Planning Tool | This project is a tool for planning scenarios of landscape-scale restoration of the Delta. The tool is designed to inform ongoing and future restoration planning efforts in... |
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Peninsula Watershed Historical Ecology Study | The Peninsula Watershed, located in San Mateo County on the San Francisco Peninsula, is the site of three of the Bay Area’s largest reservoirs—San Andreas, Upper and Lower... |
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John Muir/Mt. Wanda Historical Ecology Reconnaissance Study | The Mt. Wanda Historical Ecology Investigation assembled historical landscape data for the Mt. |
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The Urban Nature Lab at SFEI uses the quantitative science of nature in cities to guide innovative, ecologically-based urban planning and design. The Lab responds to the growing interest among planners, designers, policy-makers, and the public in gaining the diverse benefits nature can provide to urban communities, and the need for science-based design tools that draw from interdisciplinary research on cities. We bring together expertise in data science, ecology, ecosystem services, landscape architecture, and urban planning to create accessible, actionable guidance that makes the best available science available to those who need it.
The Urban Nature Lab helps cities create and support well-designed networks of nature that provide the critical functions we need from nature in our cities: reducing extreme heat, attenuating and purifying stormwater, improving physical and mental health, providing equitable access to nature and its benefits, and supporting local and regional biodiversity. We perform advanced data science analyses of land use, citizen science, health, census, and other data; synthesize emerging research from diverse fields; and collaborate with teams of design professionals to incorporate nature into projects, plans, and policies. We work closely through partnerships in the San Francisco Bay Area and around the world to advance the tools needed to create the healthy and resilient cities of the future.
Collaborators
Erin Beller, Urban Ecology Program Manager, Google
Russell Galt, Head of Urban Nature Alliance, IUCN
Rob MacDonald, Lead Scientist, The Nature Conservancy Nature-Based Solutions Program
Eric Sanderson, Senior Conservation Ecologist, Wildlife Conservation Society
Lead Scientist
Director
For more information, please contact [email protected].
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Re-Oaking | “Re-Oaking” is an approach to reintegrating oaks and other native trees within the developed California landscape to provide a range of ecosystem services. The concept has... |
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Next Generation Urban Greening | SFEI is working with partners across the Bay Area to design tools to help cities achieve biodiversity, stormwater, and climate benefits through multifunctional green... |
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Ecology for Health | This project is integrating research from the largely separate fields of urban ecology and public health to create design guidance that advances both ecological and human... |
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Making Nature's City | Cities will face many challenges over the coming decades, from adapting to a changing climate to accommodating rapid population growth. |
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Sports and Urban Biodiversity | SFEI collaborated with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to create a guide to incorporating nature... |
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Quail in Urban Parks | SFEI is using bird observations from eBird to study habitat suitability and build occupancy models for California Quail to inform the Presidio Trust and other park managers... |
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Integrating Planning with Nature | Can we gain the benefits of restoring nature while making our cities denser and protecting natural and working lands? |
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Moffett Park Specific Plan Urban Ecology Technical Study | The City of Sunnyvale is incorporating urban ecology into the new Moffett Park Specific Plan, as part of creating an |
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East Palo Alto Urban Forest Master Plan | SFEI is partnering with the City of East Palo Alto, the non-profit urban forestry group Canopy, and Hort Science to develop an Urban Forest Master Plan for the city. |
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City of Riverside Urban and Historical Ecology Case Study | This study focuses on a segment of the Santa Ana River Parkway in and around the City of Riverside, where multiple habitat restoration projects are underway. |
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Hidden Nature SF | Hidden Nature SF brings a new perspective to our view of San Francisco, studying the city’s historical ecology in order to engage the public in re-imagining San Francisco’s... |
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Preparing for the Storm | Catalyzed by the extensive damages caused by the Winter 2016-2017 storms and the opportunity to align flood response with major habitat improvement, Preparing for the Storm... |
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Urban Ecological Planning Guide for Santa Clara Valley | SFEI partnered with Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority to create a guide on how to support biodiversity across the urbanized Santa Clara Valley. |
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Resilient By Design: Science Advisors | The challenges of accelerating sea level rise and aging shoreline infrastructure are creating a once-in-a-century opportunity to redesign the Bay shore. |
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Healthy Watersheds Resilient Baylands | Through the Healthy Watersheds Resilient Baylands project, SFEI and sixteen partner organizations are developing multi-benefit tools to enhance climate change resilience in... |
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Google Ecology Advising | SFEI collaborates with the Google Ecology Program to advance the science and application of urban biodiversity and nature-based sustainability planning. |
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Resilient Silicon Valley | Tools for the creation of a resilient Silicon Valley ecosystem. |
